title: The Algorand Virtual Machine (AVM) and TEAL.

The AVM is a bytecode based stack interpreter that executes programs
associated with Algorand transactions. TEAL is an assembly language
syntax for specifying a program that is ultimately converted to AVM
bytecode. These programs can be used to check the parameters of the
transaction and approve the transaction as if by a signature. This use
is called a _Smart Signature_. Starting with v2, these programs may
also execute as _Smart Contracts_, which are often called
_Applications_. Contract executions are invoked with explicit
application call transactions.

Programs have read-only access to the transaction they are attached
to, the other transactions in their atomic transaction group, and a
few global values. In addition, _Smart Contracts_ have access to
limited state that is global to the application, per-account local
state for each account that has opted-in to the application, and
additional per-application arbitrary state in named _boxes_. For both types of
program, approval is signaled by finishing with the stack containing a
single non-zero uint64 value, though `return` can be used to signal an
early approval which approves based only upon the top stack value
being a non-zero uint64 value.

## The Stack

The stack starts empty and can contain values of either uint64 or byte-arrays
(byte-arrays may not exceed
4096 bytes in length). Most operations act on the stack, popping
arguments from it and pushing results to it. Some operations have
_immediate_ arguments that are encoded directly into the instruction,
rather than coming from the stack.

The maximum stack depth is 1000. If the stack depth is exceeded or if
a byte-array element exceeds 4096 bytes, the program fails. If an
opcode is documented to access a position in the stack that does not
exist, the operation fails. Most often, this is an attempt to access
an element below the stack -- the simplest example is an operation
like `concat` which expects two arguments on the stack. If the stack
has fewer than two elements, the operation fails. Some operations, like
`frame_dig` and `proto` could fail because of an attempt to access
above the current stack.

## Stack Types

While every element of the stack is restricted to the types `uint64` and `bytes`, 
the values of these types may be known to be bounded.  The more common bounded types are 
named to provide more semantic information in the documentation. They're also used during
assembly time to do type checking and to provide more informative error messages.


#### Definitions

| Name | Bound | AVM Type |
| ---- | ---- | -------- |
| []byte | len(x) <= 4096 | []byte |
| address | len(x) == 32 | []byte |
| any |  | any |
| bigint | len(x) <= 64 | []byte |
| bool | x <= 1 | uint64 |
| boxName | 1 <= len(x) <= 64 | []byte |
| method | len(x) == 4 | []byte |
| none |  | none |
| stateKey | len(x) <= 64 | []byte |
| uint64 | x <= 18446744073709551615 | uint64 |



## Scratch Space

In addition to the stack there are 256 positions of scratch
space. Like stack values, scratch locations may be uint64s or
byte-arrays. Scratch locations are initialized as uint64 zero. Scratch
space is accessed by the `load(s)` and `store(s)` opcodes which move
data from or to scratch space, respectively. Application calls may
inspect the final scratch space of earlier application calls in the
same group using `gload(s)(s)`

## Versions

In order to maintain existing semantics for previously written
programs, AVM code is versioned.  When new opcodes are introduced, or
behavior is changed, a new version is introduced.  Programs carrying
old versions are executed with their original semantics. In the AVM
bytecode, the version is an incrementing integer, currently 6, and
denoted vX throughout this document.

## Execution Modes

Starting from v2, the AVM can run programs in two modes:
1. LogicSig or _stateless_ mode, used to execute Smart Signatures
2. Application or _stateful_ mode, used to execute Smart Contracts

Differences between modes include:
1. Max program length (consensus parameters LogicSigMaxSize, MaxAppTotalProgramLen & MaxExtraAppProgramPages)
2. Max program cost (consensus parameters LogicSigMaxCost, MaxAppProgramCost)
3. Opcode availability. Refer to [opcodes document](opcodes/v10.md) for details.
4. Some global values, such as LatestTimestamp, are only available in stateful mode.
5. Only Applications can observe transaction effects, such as Logs or IDs allocated to ASAs or new Applications.

## Execution Environment for Smart Signatures

Smart Signatures execute as part of testing a proposed transaction to
see if it is valid and authorized to be committed into a block. If an
authorized program executes and finishes with a single non-zero uint64
value on the stack then that program has validated the transaction it
is attached to.

The program has access to data from the transaction it is attached to
(`txn` op), any transactions in a transaction group it is part of
(`gtxn` op), and a few global values like consensus parameters
(`global` op). Some "Args" may be attached to a transaction being
validated by a program. Args are an array of byte strings. A common
pattern would be to have the key to unlock some contract as an Arg. Be
aware that Smart Signature Args are recorded on the blockchain and
publicly visible when the transaction is submitted to the network,
even before the transaction has been included in a block. These Args
are _not_ part of the transaction ID nor of the TxGroup hash. They
also cannot be read from other programs in the group of transactions.

A program can either authorize some delegated action on a normal
signature-based or multisignature-based account or be wholly in charge
of a contract account.

* If the account has signed the program (by providing a valid ed25519
  signature or valid multisignature for the authorizer address on the
  string "Program" concatenated with the program bytecode) then: if the
  program returns true the transaction is authorized as if the account
  had signed it. This allows an account to hand out a signed program
  so that other users can carry out delegated actions which are
  approved by the program. Note that Smart Signature Args are _not_
  signed.

* If the SHA512_256 hash of the program (prefixed by "Program") is
  equal to authorizer address of the transaction sender then this is a
  contract account wholly controlled by the program. No other
  signature is necessary or possible. The only way to execute a
  transaction against the contract account is for the program to
  approve it.

The bytecode plus the length of all Args must add up to no more than
1000 bytes (consensus parameter LogicSigMaxSize). Each opcode has an
associated cost, usually 1, but a few slow operations have higher
costs. Prior to v4, the program's cost was estimated as the static sum
of all the opcode costs in the program (whether they were actually
executed or not). Beginning with v4, the program's cost is tracked
dynamically, while being evaluated. If the program exceeds its budget,
it fails.

The total program cost of all Smart Signatures in a group must not
exceed 20,000 (consensus parameter LogicSigMaxCost) times the number
of transactions in the group.


## Execution Environment for Smart Contracts (Applications)

Smart Contracts are executed in ApplicationCall transactions. Like
Smart Signatures, contracts indicate success by leaving a single
non-zero integer on the stack.  A failed Smart Contract call to an
ApprovalProgram is not a valid transaction, thus not written to the
blockchain. An ApplicationCall with OnComplete set to ClearState
invokes the ClearStateProgram, rather than the usual
ApprovalProgram. If the ClearStateProgram fails, application state
changes are rolled back, but the transaction still succeeds, and the
Sender's local state for the called application is removed.

Smart Contracts have access to everything a Smart Signature may access
(see previous section), as well as the ability to examine blockchain
state such as balances and contract state (their own state and the
state of other contracts).  They also have access to some global
values that are not visible to Smart Signatures because the values
change over time.  Since smart contracts access changing state, nodes
must rerun their code to determine if the ApplicationCall transactions
in their pool would still succeed each time a block is added to the
blockchain.

Smart contracts have limits on their execution cost (700, consensus
parameter MaxAppProgramCost). Before v4, this was a static limit on
the cost of all the instructions in the program. Starting in v4, the cost
is tracked dynamically during execution and must not exceed
MaxAppProgramCost. Beginning with v5, programs costs are pooled and
tracked dynamically across app executions in a group.  If `n`
application invocations appear in a group, then the total execution
cost of all such calls must not exceed `n`*MaxAppProgramCost. In v6, inner
application calls become possible, and each such call increases the
pooled budget by MaxAppProgramCost at the time the inner group is submitted
with `itxn_submit`.

Executions of the ClearStateProgram are more stringent, in order to
ensure that applications may be closed out, but that applications also
are assured a chance to clean up their internal state. At the
beginning of the execution of a ClearStateProgram, the pooled budget
available must be MaxAppProgramCost or higher. If it is not, the
containing transaction group fails without clearing the app's
state. During the execution of the ClearStateProgram, no more than
MaxAppProgramCost may be drawn. If further execution is attempted, the
ClearStateProgram fails, and the app's state _is cleared_.


### Resource availability

Smart contracts have limits on the amount of blockchain state they
may examine.  Opcodes may only access blockchain resources such as
Accounts, Assets, Boxes, and contract state if the given resource is
_available_.

 * A resource in the "foreign array" fields of the ApplicationCall
   transaction (`txn.Accounts`, `txn.ForeignAssets`, and
   `txn.ForeignApplications`) is _available_.

 * The `txn.Sender`, `global CurrentApplicationID`, and `global
   CurrentApplicationAddress` are _available_.

 * Prior to v4, all assets were considered _available_ to the
   `asset_holding_get` opcode, and all applications were _available_
   to the `app_local_get_ex` opcode.

 * Since v6, any asset or contract that was created earlier in the
   same transaction group (whether by a top-level or inner
   transaction) is _available_. In addition, any account that is the
   associated account of a contract that was created earlier in the
   group is _available_.

 * Since v7, the account associated with any contract present in the
   `txn.ForeignApplications` field is _available_.
   
 * Since v9, there is group-level resource sharing. Any resource that
   is available in _some_ top-level transaction in a transaction group
   is available in _all_ v9 or later application calls in the group,
   whether those application calls are top-level or inner.
   
 * When considering whether an asset holding or application local
   state is available by group-level resource sharing, the holding or
   local state must be available in a top-level transaction without
   considering group sharing. For example, if account A is made
   available in one transaction, and asset X is made available in
   another, group resource sharing does _not_ make A's X holding
   available.
     
 * Top-level transactions that are not application calls also make
   resources available to group-level resource sharing. The following
   resources are made available by other transaction types.

     1. `pay` - `txn.Sender`, `txn.Receiver`, and
        `txn.CloseRemainderTo` (if set).

     1. `keyreg` - `txn.Sender`

     1. `acfg` - `txn.Sender`, `txn.ConfigAsset`, and the
        `txn.ConfigAsset` holding of `txn.Sender`.

     1. `axfer` - `txn.Sender`, `txn.AssetReceiver`, `txn.AssetSender`
        (if set), `txnAssetCloseTo` (if set), `txn.XferAsset`, and the
        `txn.XferAsset` holding of each of those accounts.

     1. `afrz` - `txn.Sender`, `txn.FreezeAccount`, `txn.FreezeAsset`,
        and the `txn.FreezeAsset` holding of `txn.FreezeAccount`. The
        `txn.FreezeAsset` holding of `txn.Sender` is _not_ made
        available.


 * A Box is _available_ to an Approval Program if _any_ transaction in
   the same group contains a box reference (`txn.Boxes`) that denotes
   the box. A box reference contains an index `i`, and name `n`. The
   index refers to the `ith` application in the transaction's
   ForeignApplications array, with the usual convention that 0
   indicates the application ID of the app called by that
   transaction. No box is ever _available_ to a ClearStateProgram.

Regardless of _availability_, any attempt to access an Asset or
Application with an ID less than 256 from within a Contract will fail
immediately. This avoids any ambiguity in opcodes that interpret their
integer arguments as resource IDs _or_ indexes into the
`txn.ForeignAssets` or `txn.ForeignApplications` arrays.

It is recommended that contract authors avoid supplying array indexes
to these opcodes, and always use explicit resource IDs. By using
explicit IDs, contracts will better take advantage of group resource
sharing.  The array indexing interpretation may be deprecated in a
future version.

## Constants

Constants can be pushed onto the stack in two different ways:

1. Constants can be pushed directly with `pushint` or
   `pushbytes`. This method is more efficient for constants that are
   only used once.

2. Constants can be loaded into storage separate from the stack and
   scratch space, using two opcodes `intcblock` and
   `bytecblock`. Then, constants from this storage can be
   pushed onto the stack by referring to the type and index using
   `intc`, `intc_[0123]`, `bytec`, and `bytec_[0123]`. This method is
   more efficient for constants that are used multiple times.

The assembler will hide most of this, allowing simple use of `int 1234`
and `byte 0xcafed00d`. Constants introduced via `int` and `byte` will
be assembled into appropriate uses of `pushint|pushbytes` and
`{int|byte}c, {int|byte}c_[0123]` to minimize program size.


The opcodes `intcblock` and `bytecblock` use [proto-buf style variable length unsigned int](https://developers.google.com/protocol-buffers/docs/encoding#varint),
reproduced [here](#varuint). The `intcblock` opcode is followed by a
varuint specifying the number of integer constants and then that
number of varuints. The `bytecblock` opcode is followed by a varuint
specifying the number of byte constants, and then that number of pairs
of (varuint, bytes) length prefixed byte strings.

### Named Integer Constants

#### OnComplete

An application transaction must indicate the action to be taken following the execution of its approvalProgram or clearStateProgram. The constants below describe the available actions.

| Value | Name | Description |
| - | ---- | -------- |
| 0 | NoOp | Only execute the `ApprovalProgram` associated with this application ID, with no additional effects. |
| 1 | OptIn | Before executing the `ApprovalProgram`, allocate local state for this application into the sender's account data. |
| 2 | CloseOut | After executing the `ApprovalProgram`, clear any local state for this application out of the sender's account data. |
| 3 | ClearState | Don't execute the `ApprovalProgram`, and instead execute the `ClearStateProgram` (which may not reject this transaction). Additionally, clear any local state for this application out of the sender's account data as in `CloseOutOC`. |
| 4 | UpdateApplication | After executing the `ApprovalProgram`, replace the `ApprovalProgram` and `ClearStateProgram` associated with this application ID with the programs specified in this transaction. |
| 5 | DeleteApplication | After executing the `ApprovalProgram`, delete the application parameters from the account data of the application's creator. |

#### TypeEnum constants

| Value | Name | Description |
| - | --- | ------ |
| 0 | unknown | Unknown type. Invalid transaction |
| 1 | pay | Payment |
| 2 | keyreg | KeyRegistration |
| 3 | acfg | AssetConfig |
| 4 | axfer | AssetTransfer |
| 5 | afrz | AssetFreeze |
| 6 | appl | ApplicationCall |


## Operations

Most operations work with only one type of argument, uint64 or bytes, and fail if the wrong type value is on the stack.

Many instructions accept values to designate Accounts, Assets, or Applications. Beginning with v4, these values may be given as an _offset_ in the corresponding Txn fields (Txn.Accounts, Txn.ForeignAssets, Txn.ForeignApps) _or_ as the value itself (a byte-array address for Accounts, or a uint64 ID). The values, however, must still be present in the Txn fields. Before v4, most opcodes required the use of an offset, except for reading account local values of assets or applications, which accepted the IDs directly and did not require the ID to be present in the corresponding _Foreign_ array. (Note that beginning with v4, those IDs _are_ required to be present in their corresponding _Foreign_ array.) See individual opcodes for details. In the case of account offsets or application offsets, 0 is specially defined to Txn.Sender or the ID of the current application, respectively.

This summary is supplemented by more detail in the [opcodes document](opcodes/v10.md).

Some operations immediately fail the program.
A transaction checked by a program that fails is not valid.
An account governed by a buggy program might not have a way to get assets back out of it. Code carefully.

In the documentation for each opcode, the stack arguments that are
popped are referred to alphabetically, beginning with the deepest
argument as `A`.  These arguments are shown in the opcode description,
and if the opcode must be of a specific type, it is noted there.  All
opcodes fail if a specified type is incorrect.

If an opcode pushes more than one result, the values are named for
ease of exposition and clarity concerning their stack positions.  When
an opcode manipulates the stack in such a way that a value changes
position but is otherwise unchanged, the name of the output on the
return stack matches the name of the input value.

### Arithmetic and Logic Operations

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `+` | A plus B. Fail on overflow. |
| `-` | A minus B. Fail if B > A. |
| `/` | A divided by B (truncated division). Fail if B == 0. |
| `*` | A times B. Fail on overflow. |
| `<` | A less than B => {0 or 1} |
| `>` | A greater than B => {0 or 1} |
| `<=` | A less than or equal to B => {0 or 1} |
| `>=` | A greater than or equal to B => {0 or 1} |
| `&&` | A is not zero and B is not zero => {0 or 1} |
| `\|\|` | A is not zero or B is not zero => {0 or 1} |
| `shl` | A times 2^B, modulo 2^64 |
| `shr` | A divided by 2^B |
| `sqrt` | The largest integer I such that I^2 <= A |
| `bitlen` | The highest set bit in A. If A is a byte-array, it is interpreted as a big-endian unsigned integer. bitlen of 0 is 0, bitlen of 8 is 4 |
| `exp` | A raised to the Bth power. Fail if A == B == 0 and on overflow |
| `==` | A is equal to B => {0 or 1} |
| `!=` | A is not equal to B => {0 or 1} |
| `!` | A == 0 yields 1; else 0 |
| `itob` | converts uint64 A to big-endian byte array, always of length 8 |
| `btoi` | converts big-endian byte array A to uint64. Fails if len(A) > 8. Padded by leading 0s if len(A) < 8. |
| `%` | A modulo B. Fail if B == 0. |
| `\|` | A bitwise-or B |
| `&` | A bitwise-and B |
| `^` | A bitwise-xor B |
| `~` | bitwise invert value A |
| `mulw` | A times B as a 128-bit result in two uint64s. X is the high 64 bits, Y is the low |
| `addw` | A plus B as a 128-bit result. X is the carry-bit, Y is the low-order 64 bits. |
| `divw` | A,B / C. Fail if C == 0 or if result overflows. |
| `divmodw` | W,X = (A,B / C,D); Y,Z = (A,B modulo C,D) |
| `expw` | A raised to the Bth power as a 128-bit result in two uint64s. X is the high 64 bits, Y is the low. Fail if A == B == 0 or if the results exceeds 2^128-1 |

### Byte Array Manipulation

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `getbit` | Bth bit of (byte-array or integer) A. If B is greater than or equal to the bit length of the value (8*byte length), the program fails |
| `setbit` | Copy of (byte-array or integer) A, with the Bth bit set to (0 or 1) C. If B is greater than or equal to the bit length of the value (8*byte length), the program fails |
| `getbyte` | Bth byte of A, as an integer. If B is greater than or equal to the array length, the program fails |
| `setbyte` | Copy of A with the Bth byte set to small integer (between 0..255) C. If B is greater than or equal to the array length, the program fails |
| `concat` | join A and B |
| `len` | yields length of byte value A |
| `substring s e` | A range of bytes from A starting at S up to but not including E. If E < S, or either is larger than the array length, the program fails |
| `substring3` | A range of bytes from A starting at B up to but not including C. If C < B, or either is larger than the array length, the program fails |
| `extract s l` | A range of bytes from A starting at S up to but not including S+L. If L is 0, then extract to the end of the string. If S or S+L is larger than the array length, the program fails |
| `extract3` | A range of bytes from A starting at B up to but not including B+C. If B+C is larger than the array length, the program fails<br />`extract3` can be called using `extract` with no immediates. |
| `extract_uint16` | A uint16 formed from a range of big-endian bytes from A starting at B up to but not including B+2. If B+2 is larger than the array length, the program fails |
| `extract_uint32` | A uint32 formed from a range of big-endian bytes from A starting at B up to but not including B+4. If B+4 is larger than the array length, the program fails |
| `extract_uint64` | A uint64 formed from a range of big-endian bytes from A starting at B up to but not including B+8. If B+8 is larger than the array length, the program fails |
| `replace2 s` | Copy of A with the bytes starting at S replaced by the bytes of B. Fails if S+len(B) exceeds len(A)<br />`replace2` can be called using `replace` with 1 immediate. |
| `replace3` | Copy of A with the bytes starting at B replaced by the bytes of C. Fails if B+len(C) exceeds len(A)<br />`replace3` can be called using `replace` with no immediates. |
| `base64_decode e` | decode A which was base64-encoded using _encoding_ E. Fail if A is not base64 encoded with encoding E |
| `json_ref r` | key B's value, of type R, from a [valid](jsonspec.md) utf-8 encoded json object A |

The following opcodes take byte-array values that are interpreted as
big-endian unsigned integers.  For mathematical operators, the
returned values are the shortest byte-array that can represent the
returned value.  For example, the zero value is the empty
byte-array. For comparison operators, the returned value is a uint64.

Input lengths are limited to a maximum length of 64 bytes,
representing a 512 bit unsigned integer. Output lengths are not
explicitly restricted, though only `b*` and `b+` can produce a larger
output than their inputs, so there is an implicit length limit of 128
bytes on outputs.

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `b+` | A plus B. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b-` | A minus B. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers. Fail on underflow. |
| `b/` | A divided by B (truncated division). A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers. Fail if B is zero. |
| `b*` | A times B. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers. |
| `b<` | 1 if A is less than B, else 0. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b>` | 1 if A is greater than B, else 0. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b<=` | 1 if A is less than or equal to B, else 0. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b>=` | 1 if A is greater than or equal to B, else 0. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b==` | 1 if A is equal to B, else 0. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b!=` | 0 if A is equal to B, else 1. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |
| `b%` | A modulo B. A and B are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers. Fail if B is zero. |
| `bsqrt` | The largest integer I such that I^2 <= A. A and I are interpreted as big-endian unsigned integers |

These opcodes operate on the bits of byte-array values.  The shorter
input array is interpreted as though left padded with zeros until it is the
same length as the other input.  The returned values are the same
length as the longer input.  Therefore, unlike array arithmetic,
these results may contain leading zero bytes.

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `b\|` | A bitwise-or B. A and B are zero-left extended to the greater of their lengths |
| `b&` | A bitwise-and B. A and B are zero-left extended to the greater of their lengths |
| `b^` | A bitwise-xor B. A and B are zero-left extended to the greater of their lengths |
| `b~` | A with all bits inverted |

### Cryptographic Operations

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `sha256` | SHA256 hash of value A, yields [32]byte |
| `keccak256` | Keccak256 hash of value A, yields [32]byte |
| `sha512_256` | SHA512_256 hash of value A, yields [32]byte |
| `sha3_256` | SHA3_256 hash of value A, yields [32]byte |
| `ed25519verify` | for (data A, signature B, pubkey C) verify the signature of ("ProgData" \|\| program_hash \|\| data) against the pubkey => {0 or 1} |
| `ed25519verify_bare` | for (data A, signature B, pubkey C) verify the signature of the data against the pubkey => {0 or 1} |
| `ecdsa_verify v` | for (data A, signature B, C and pubkey D, E) verify the signature of the data against the pubkey => {0 or 1} |
| `ecdsa_pk_recover v` | for (data A, recovery id B, signature C, D) recover a public key |
| `ecdsa_pk_decompress v` | decompress pubkey A into components X, Y |
| `vrf_verify s` | Verify the proof B of message A against pubkey C. Returns vrf output and verification flag. |
| `ec_add g` | for curve points A and B, return the curve point A + B |
| `ec_scalar_mul g` | for curve point A and scalar B, return the curve point BA, the point A multiplied by the scalar B. |
| `ec_pairing_check g` | 1 if the product of the pairing of each point in A with its respective point in B is equal to the identity element of the target group Gt, else 0 |
| `ec_multi_scalar_mul g` | for curve points A and scalars B, return curve point B0A0 + B1A1 + B2A2 + ... + BnAn |
| `ec_subgroup_check g` | 1 if A is in the main prime-order subgroup of G (including the point at infinity) else 0. Program fails if A is not in G at all. |
| `ec_map_to g` | maps field element A to group G |

### Loading Values

Opcodes for getting data onto the stack.

Some of these have immediate data in the byte or bytes after the opcode.

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `intcblock uint ...` | prepare block of uint64 constants for use by intc |
| `intc i` | Ith constant from intcblock |
| `intc_0` | constant 0 from intcblock |
| `intc_1` | constant 1 from intcblock |
| `intc_2` | constant 2 from intcblock |
| `intc_3` | constant 3 from intcblock |
| `pushint uint` | immediate UINT |
| `pushints uint ...` | push sequence of immediate uints to stack in the order they appear (first uint being deepest) |
| `bytecblock bytes ...` | prepare block of byte-array constants for use by bytec |
| `bytec i` | Ith constant from bytecblock |
| `bytec_0` | constant 0 from bytecblock |
| `bytec_1` | constant 1 from bytecblock |
| `bytec_2` | constant 2 from bytecblock |
| `bytec_3` | constant 3 from bytecblock |
| `pushbytes bytes` | immediate BYTES |
| `pushbytess bytes ...` | push sequences of immediate byte arrays to stack (first byte array being deepest) |
| `bzero` | zero filled byte-array of length A |
| `arg n` | Nth LogicSig argument |
| `arg_0` | LogicSig argument 0 |
| `arg_1` | LogicSig argument 1 |
| `arg_2` | LogicSig argument 2 |
| `arg_3` | LogicSig argument 3 |
| `args` | Ath LogicSig argument |
| `txn f` | field F of current transaction |
| `gtxn t f` | field F of the Tth transaction in the current group |
| `txna f i` | Ith value of the array field F of the current transaction<br />`txna` can be called using `txn` with 2 immediates. |
| `txnas f` | Ath value of the array field F of the current transaction |
| `gtxna t f i` | Ith value of the array field F from the Tth transaction in the current group<br />`gtxna` can be called using `gtxn` with 3 immediates. |
| `gtxnas t f` | Ath value of the array field F from the Tth transaction in the current group |
| `gtxns f` | field F of the Ath transaction in the current group |
| `gtxnsa f i` | Ith value of the array field F from the Ath transaction in the current group<br />`gtxnsa` can be called using `gtxns` with 2 immediates. |
| `gtxnsas f` | Bth value of the array field F from the Ath transaction in the current group |
| `global f` | global field F |
| `load i` | Ith scratch space value. All scratch spaces are 0 at program start. |
| `loads` | Ath scratch space value.  All scratch spaces are 0 at program start. |
| `store i` | store A to the Ith scratch space |
| `stores` | store B to the Ath scratch space |
| `gload t i` | Ith scratch space value of the Tth transaction in the current group |
| `gloads i` | Ith scratch space value of the Ath transaction in the current group |
| `gloadss` | Bth scratch space value of the Ath transaction in the current group |
| `gaid t` | ID of the asset or application created in the Tth transaction of the current group |
| `gaids` | ID of the asset or application created in the Ath transaction of the current group |

#### Transaction Fields
##### Scalar Fields
| Index | Name | Type | In | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | - | --------- |
| 0 | Sender | address |      | 32 byte address |
| 1 | Fee | uint64 |      | microalgos |
| 2 | FirstValid | uint64 |      | round number |
| 3 | FirstValidTime | uint64 | v7  | UNIX timestamp of block before txn.FirstValid. Fails if negative |
| 4 | LastValid | uint64 |      | round number |
| 5 | Note | []byte |      | Any data up to 1024 bytes |
| 6 | Lease | [32]byte |      | 32 byte lease value |
| 7 | Receiver | address |      | 32 byte address |
| 8 | Amount | uint64 |      | microalgos |
| 9 | CloseRemainderTo | address |      | 32 byte address |
| 10 | VotePK | [32]byte |      | 32 byte address |
| 11 | SelectionPK | [32]byte |      | 32 byte address |
| 12 | VoteFirst | uint64 |      | The first round that the participation key is valid. |
| 13 | VoteLast | uint64 |      | The last round that the participation key is valid. |
| 14 | VoteKeyDilution | uint64 |      | Dilution for the 2-level participation key |
| 15 | Type | []byte |      | Transaction type as bytes |
| 16 | TypeEnum | uint64 |      | Transaction type as integer |
| 17 | XferAsset | uint64 |      | Asset ID |
| 18 | AssetAmount | uint64 |      | value in Asset's units |
| 19 | AssetSender | address |      | 32 byte address. Source of assets if Sender is the Asset's Clawback address. |
| 20 | AssetReceiver | address |      | 32 byte address |
| 21 | AssetCloseTo | address |      | 32 byte address |
| 22 | GroupIndex | uint64 |      | Position of this transaction within an atomic transaction group. A stand-alone transaction is implicitly element 0 in a group of 1 |
| 23 | TxID | [32]byte |      | The computed ID for this transaction. 32 bytes. |
| 24 | ApplicationID | uint64 | v2  | ApplicationID from ApplicationCall transaction |
| 25 | OnCompletion | uint64 | v2  | ApplicationCall transaction on completion action |
| 27 | NumAppArgs | uint64 | v2  | Number of ApplicationArgs |
| 29 | NumAccounts | uint64 | v2  | Number of Accounts |
| 30 | ApprovalProgram | []byte | v2  | Approval program |
| 31 | ClearStateProgram | []byte | v2  | Clear state program |
| 32 | RekeyTo | address | v2  | 32 byte Sender's new AuthAddr |
| 33 | ConfigAsset | uint64 | v2  | Asset ID in asset config transaction |
| 34 | ConfigAssetTotal | uint64 | v2  | Total number of units of this asset created |
| 35 | ConfigAssetDecimals | uint64 | v2  | Number of digits to display after the decimal place when displaying the asset |
| 36 | ConfigAssetDefaultFrozen | bool | v2  | Whether the asset's slots are frozen by default or not, 0 or 1 |
| 37 | ConfigAssetUnitName | []byte | v2  | Unit name of the asset |
| 38 | ConfigAssetName | []byte | v2  | The asset name |
| 39 | ConfigAssetURL | []byte | v2  | URL |
| 40 | ConfigAssetMetadataHash | [32]byte | v2  | 32 byte commitment to unspecified asset metadata |
| 41 | ConfigAssetManager | address | v2  | 32 byte address |
| 42 | ConfigAssetReserve | address | v2  | 32 byte address |
| 43 | ConfigAssetFreeze | address | v2  | 32 byte address |
| 44 | ConfigAssetClawback | address | v2  | 32 byte address |
| 45 | FreezeAsset | uint64 | v2  | Asset ID being frozen or un-frozen |
| 46 | FreezeAssetAccount | address | v2  | 32 byte address of the account whose asset slot is being frozen or un-frozen |
| 47 | FreezeAssetFrozen | bool | v2  | The new frozen value, 0 or 1 |
| 49 | NumAssets | uint64 | v3  | Number of Assets |
| 51 | NumApplications | uint64 | v3  | Number of Applications |
| 52 | GlobalNumUint | uint64 | v3  | Number of global state integers in ApplicationCall |
| 53 | GlobalNumByteSlice | uint64 | v3  | Number of global state byteslices in ApplicationCall |
| 54 | LocalNumUint | uint64 | v3  | Number of local state integers in ApplicationCall |
| 55 | LocalNumByteSlice | uint64 | v3  | Number of local state byteslices in ApplicationCall |
| 56 | ExtraProgramPages | uint64 | v4  | Number of additional pages for each of the application's approval and clear state programs. An ExtraProgramPages of 1 means 2048 more total bytes, or 1024 for each program. |
| 57 | Nonparticipation | bool | v5  | Marks an account nonparticipating for rewards |
| 59 | NumLogs | uint64 | v5  | Number of Logs (only with `itxn` in v5). Application mode only |
| 60 | CreatedAssetID | uint64 | v5  | Asset ID allocated by the creation of an ASA (only with `itxn` in v5). Application mode only |
| 61 | CreatedApplicationID | uint64 | v5  | ApplicationID allocated by the creation of an application (only with `itxn` in v5). Application mode only |
| 62 | LastLog | []byte | v6  | The last message emitted. Empty bytes if none were emitted. Application mode only |
| 63 | StateProofPK | []byte | v6  | 64 byte state proof public key |
| 65 | NumApprovalProgramPages | uint64 | v7  | Number of Approval Program pages |
| 67 | NumClearStateProgramPages | uint64 | v7  | Number of ClearState Program pages |

##### Array Fields
| Index | Name | Type | In | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | - | --------- |
| 26 | ApplicationArgs | []byte | v2  | Arguments passed to the application in the ApplicationCall transaction |
| 28 | Accounts | address | v2  | Accounts listed in the ApplicationCall transaction |
| 48 | Assets | uint64 | v3  | Foreign Assets listed in the ApplicationCall transaction |
| 50 | Applications | uint64 | v3  | Foreign Apps listed in the ApplicationCall transaction |
| 58 | Logs | []byte | v5  | Log messages emitted by an application call (only with `itxn` in v5). Application mode only |
| 64 | ApprovalProgramPages | []byte | v7  | Approval Program as an array of pages |
| 66 | ClearStateProgramPages | []byte | v7  | ClearState Program as an array of pages |


Additional details in the [opcodes document](opcodes/v10.md#txn) on the `txn` op.

**Global Fields**

Global fields are fields that are common to all the transactions in the group. In particular it includes consensus parameters.

| Index | Name | Type | In | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | - | --------- |
| 0 | MinTxnFee | uint64 |      | microalgos |
| 1 | MinBalance | uint64 |      | microalgos |
| 2 | MaxTxnLife | uint64 |      | rounds |
| 3 | ZeroAddress | address |      | 32 byte address of all zero bytes |
| 4 | GroupSize | uint64 |      | Number of transactions in this atomic transaction group. At least 1 |
| 5 | LogicSigVersion | uint64 | v2  | Maximum supported version |
| 6 | Round | uint64 | v2  | Current round number. Application mode only. |
| 7 | LatestTimestamp | uint64 | v2  | Last confirmed block UNIX timestamp. Fails if negative. Application mode only. |
| 8 | CurrentApplicationID | uint64 | v2  | ID of current application executing. Application mode only. |
| 9 | CreatorAddress | address | v3  | Address of the creator of the current application. Application mode only. |
| 10 | CurrentApplicationAddress | address | v5  | Address that the current application controls. Application mode only. |
| 11 | GroupID | [32]byte | v5  | ID of the transaction group. 32 zero bytes if the transaction is not part of a group. |
| 12 | OpcodeBudget | uint64 | v6  | The remaining cost that can be spent by opcodes in this program. |
| 13 | CallerApplicationID | uint64 | v6  | The application ID of the application that called this application. 0 if this application is at the top-level. Application mode only. |
| 14 | CallerApplicationAddress | address | v6  | The application address of the application that called this application. ZeroAddress if this application is at the top-level. Application mode only. |
| 15 | AssetCreateMinBalance | uint64 | v10  | The additional minimum balance required to create (and opt-in to) an asset. |
| 16 | AssetOptInMinBalance | uint64 | v10  | The additional minimum balance required to opt-in to an asset. |
| 17 | GenesisHash | [32]byte | v10  | The Genesis Hash for the network. |


**Asset Fields**

Asset fields include `AssetHolding` and `AssetParam` fields that are used in the `asset_holding_get` and `asset_params_get` opcodes.

| Index | Name | Type | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | --------- |
| 0 | AssetBalance | uint64 | Amount of the asset unit held by this account |
| 1 | AssetFrozen | bool | Is the asset frozen or not |


| Index | Name | Type | In | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | - | --------- |
| 0 | AssetTotal | uint64 |      | Total number of units of this asset |
| 1 | AssetDecimals | uint64 |      | See AssetParams.Decimals |
| 2 | AssetDefaultFrozen | bool |      | Frozen by default or not |
| 3 | AssetUnitName | []byte |      | Asset unit name |
| 4 | AssetName | []byte |      | Asset name |
| 5 | AssetURL | []byte |      | URL with additional info about the asset |
| 6 | AssetMetadataHash | [32]byte |      | Arbitrary commitment |
| 7 | AssetManager | address |      | Manager address |
| 8 | AssetReserve | address |      | Reserve address |
| 9 | AssetFreeze | address |      | Freeze address |
| 10 | AssetClawback | address |      | Clawback address |
| 11 | AssetCreator | address | v5  | Creator address |


**App Fields**

App fields used in the `app_params_get` opcode.

| Index | Name | Type | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | --------- |
| 0 | AppApprovalProgram | []byte | Bytecode of Approval Program |
| 1 | AppClearStateProgram | []byte | Bytecode of Clear State Program |
| 2 | AppGlobalNumUint | uint64 | Number of uint64 values allowed in Global State |
| 3 | AppGlobalNumByteSlice | uint64 | Number of byte array values allowed in Global State |
| 4 | AppLocalNumUint | uint64 | Number of uint64 values allowed in Local State |
| 5 | AppLocalNumByteSlice | uint64 | Number of byte array values allowed in Local State |
| 6 | AppExtraProgramPages | uint64 | Number of Extra Program Pages of code space |
| 7 | AppCreator | address | Creator address |
| 8 | AppAddress | address | Address for which this application has authority |


**Account Fields**

Account fields used in the `acct_params_get` opcode.

| Index | Name | Type | In | Notes |
| - | ------ | -- | - | --------- |
| 0 | AcctBalance | uint64 |      | Account balance in microalgos |
| 1 | AcctMinBalance | uint64 |      | Minimum required balance for account, in microalgos |
| 2 | AcctAuthAddr | address |      | Address the account is rekeyed to. |
| 3 | AcctTotalNumUint | uint64 | v8  | The total number of uint64 values allocated by this account in Global and Local States. |
| 4 | AcctTotalNumByteSlice | uint64 | v8  | The total number of byte array values allocated by this account in Global and Local States. |
| 5 | AcctTotalExtraAppPages | uint64 | v8  | The number of extra app code pages used by this account. |
| 6 | AcctTotalAppsCreated | uint64 | v8  | The number of existing apps created by this account. |
| 7 | AcctTotalAppsOptedIn | uint64 | v8  | The number of apps this account is opted into. |
| 8 | AcctTotalAssetsCreated | uint64 | v8  | The number of existing ASAs created by this account. |
| 9 | AcctTotalAssets | uint64 | v8  | The numbers of ASAs held by this account (including ASAs this account created). |
| 10 | AcctTotalBoxes | uint64 | v8  | The number of existing boxes created by this account's app. |
| 11 | AcctTotalBoxBytes | uint64 | v8  | The total number of bytes used by this account's app's box keys and values. |


### Flow Control

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `err` | Fail immediately. |
| `bnz target` | branch to TARGET if value A is not zero |
| `bz target` | branch to TARGET if value A is zero |
| `b target` | branch unconditionally to TARGET |
| `return` | use A as success value; end |
| `pop` | discard A |
| `popn n` | remove N values from the top of the stack |
| `dup` | duplicate A |
| `dup2` | duplicate A and B |
| `dupn n` | duplicate A, N times |
| `dig n` | Nth value from the top of the stack. dig 0 is equivalent to dup |
| `bury n` | replace the Nth value from the top of the stack with A. bury 0 fails. |
| `cover n` | remove top of stack, and place it deeper in the stack such that N elements are above it. Fails if stack depth <= N. |
| `uncover n` | remove the value at depth N in the stack and shift above items down so the Nth deep value is on top of the stack. Fails if stack depth <= N. |
| `frame_dig i` | Nth (signed) value from the frame pointer. |
| `frame_bury i` | replace the Nth (signed) value from the frame pointer in the stack with A |
| `swap` | swaps A and B on stack |
| `select` | selects one of two values based on top-of-stack: B if C != 0, else A |
| `assert` | immediately fail unless A is a non-zero number |
| `callsub target` | branch unconditionally to TARGET, saving the next instruction on the call stack |
| `proto a r` | Prepare top call frame for a retsub that will assume A args and R return values. |
| `retsub` | pop the top instruction from the call stack and branch to it |
| `switch target ...` | branch to the Ath label. Continue at following instruction if index A exceeds the number of labels. |
| `match target ...` | given match cases from A[1] to A[N], branch to the Ith label where A[I] = B. Continue to the following instruction if no matches are found. |

### State Access

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `balance` | balance for account A, in microalgos. The balance is observed after the effects of previous transactions in the group, and after the fee for the current transaction is deducted. Changes caused by inner transactions are observable immediately following `itxn_submit` |
| `min_balance` | minimum required balance for account A, in microalgos. Required balance is affected by ASA, App, and Box usage. When creating or opting into an app, the minimum balance grows before the app code runs, therefore the increase is visible there. When deleting or closing out, the minimum balance decreases after the app executes. Changes caused by inner transactions or box usage are observable immediately following the opcode effecting the change. |
| `app_opted_in` | 1 if account A is opted in to application B, else 0 |
| `app_local_get` | local state of the key B in the current application in account A |
| `app_local_get_ex` | X is the local state of application B, key C in account A. Y is 1 if key existed, else 0 |
| `app_global_get` | global state of the key A in the current application |
| `app_global_get_ex` | X is the global state of application A, key B. Y is 1 if key existed, else 0 |
| `app_local_put` | write C to key B in account A's local state of the current application |
| `app_global_put` | write B to key A in the global state of the current application |
| `app_local_del` | delete key B from account A's local state of the current application |
| `app_global_del` | delete key A from the global state of the current application |
| `asset_holding_get f` | X is field F from account A's holding of asset B. Y is 1 if A is opted into B, else 0 |
| `asset_params_get f` | X is field F from asset A. Y is 1 if A exists, else 0 |
| `app_params_get f` | X is field F from app A. Y is 1 if A exists, else 0 |
| `acct_params_get f` | X is field F from account A. Y is 1 if A owns positive algos, else 0 |
| `log` | write A to log state of the current application |
| `block f` | field F of block A. Fail unless A falls between txn.LastValid-1002 and txn.FirstValid (exclusive) |

### Box Access

Box opcodes that create, delete, or resize boxes affect the minimum
balance requirement of the calling application's account.  The change
is immediate, and can be observed after exection by using
`min_balance`.  If the account does not possess the new minimum
balance, the opcode fails.

All box related opcodes fail immediately if used in a
ClearStateProgram. This behavior is meant to discourage Smart Contract
authors from depending upon the availability of boxes in a ClearState
transaction, as accounts using ClearState are under no requirement to
furnish appropriate Box References.  Authors would do well to keep the
same issue in mind with respect to the availability of Accounts,
Assets, and Apps though State Access opcodes _are_ allowed in
ClearState programs because the current application and sender account
are sure to be _available_.

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `box_create` | create a box named A, of length B. Fail if the name A is empty or B exceeds 32,768. Returns 0 if A already existed, else 1 |
| `box_extract` | read C bytes from box A, starting at offset B. Fail if A does not exist, or the byte range is outside A's size. |
| `box_replace` | write byte-array C into box A, starting at offset B. Fail if A does not exist, or the byte range is outside A's size. |
| `box_splice` | set box A to contain its previous bytes up to index B, followed by D, followed by the original bytes of A that began at index B+C. |
| `box_del` | delete box named A if it exists. Return 1 if A existed, 0 otherwise |
| `box_len` | X is the length of box A if A exists, else 0. Y is 1 if A exists, else 0. |
| `box_get` | X is the contents of box A if A exists, else ''. Y is 1 if A exists, else 0. |
| `box_put` | replaces the contents of box A with byte-array B. Fails if A exists and len(B) != len(box A). Creates A if it does not exist |
| `box_resize` | change the size of box named A to be of length B, adding zero bytes to end or removing bytes from the end, as needed. Fail if the name A is empty, A is not an existing box, or B exceeds 32,768. |

### Inner Transactions

The following opcodes allow for "inner transactions". Inner
transactions allow stateful applications to have many of the effects
of a true top-level transaction, programmatically.  However, they are
different in significant ways.  The most important differences are
that they are not signed, duplicates are not rejected, and they do not
appear in the block in the usual away. Instead, their effects are
noted in metadata associated with their top-level application
call transaction.  An inner transaction's `Sender` must be the
SHA512_256 hash of the application ID (prefixed by "appID"), or an
account that has been rekeyed to that hash.

In v5, inner transactions may perform `pay`, `axfer`, `acfg`, and
`afrz` effects.  After executing an inner transaction with
`itxn_submit`, the effects of the transaction are visible beginning
with the next instruction with, for example, `balance` and
`min_balance` checks. In v6, inner transactions may also perform
`keyreg` and `appl` effects. Inner `appl` calls fail if they attempt
to invoke a program with version less than v4, or if they attempt to
opt-in to an app with a ClearState Program less than v4.

In v5, only a subset of the transaction's header fields may be set: `Type`/`TypeEnum`,
`Sender`, and `Fee`. In v6, header fields `Note` and `RekeyTo` may
also be set.  For the specific (non-header) fields of each transaction
type, any field may be set.  This allows, for example, clawback
transactions, asset opt-ins, and asset creates in addition to the more
common uses of `axfer` and `acfg`.  All fields default to the zero
value, except those described under `itxn_begin`.

Fields may be set multiple times, but may not be read. The most recent
setting is used when `itxn_submit` executes. For this purpose `Type`
and `TypeEnum` are considered to be the same field. When using
`itxn_field` to set an array field (`ApplicationArgs` `Accounts`,
`Assets`, or `Applications`) each use adds an element to the end of
the array, rather than setting the entire array at once.

`itxn_field` fails immediately for unsupported fields, unsupported
transaction types, or improperly typed values for a particular
field. `itxn_field` makes acceptance decisions entirely from the field
and value provided, never considering previously set fields. Illegal
interactions between fields, such as setting fields that belong to two
different transaction types, are rejected by `itxn_submit`.

| Opcode | Description |
| - | -- |
| `itxn_begin` | begin preparation of a new inner transaction in a new transaction group |
| `itxn_next` | begin preparation of a new inner transaction in the same transaction group |
| `itxn_field f` | set field F of the current inner transaction to A |
| `itxn_submit` | execute the current inner transaction group. Fail if executing this group would exceed the inner transaction limit, or if any transaction in the group fails. |
| `itxn f` | field F of the last inner transaction |
| `itxna f i` | Ith value of the array field F of the last inner transaction |
| `itxnas f` | Ath value of the array field F of the last inner transaction |
| `gitxn t f` | field F of the Tth transaction in the last inner group submitted |
| `gitxna t f i` | Ith value of the array field F from the Tth transaction in the last inner group submitted |
| `gitxnas t f` | Ath value of the array field F from the Tth transaction in the last inner group submitted |


# Assembler Syntax

The assembler parses line by line. Ops that only take stack arguments
appear on a line by themselves. Immediate arguments follow the opcode
on the same line, separated by whitespace.

The first line may contain a special version pragma `#pragma version X`, which directs the assembler to generate bytecode targeting a certain version. For instance, `#pragma version 2` produces bytecode targeting v2. By default, the assembler targets v1.

Subsequent lines may contain other pragma declarations (i.e., `#pragma <some-specification>`), pertaining to checks that the assembler should perform before agreeing to emit the program bytes, specific optimizations, etc. Those declarations are optional and cannot alter the semantics as described in this document.

"`//`" prefixes a line comment.

## Constants and Pseudo-Ops

A few pseudo-ops simplify writing code. `int` and `byte` and `addr` and `method` followed by a constant record the constant to a `intcblock` or `bytecblock` at the beginning of code and insert an `intc` or `bytec` reference where the instruction appears to load that value. `addr` parses an Algorand account address base32 and converts it to a regular bytes constant. `method` is passed a method signature and takes the first four bytes of the hash to convert it to the standard method selector defined in [ARC4](https://github.com/algorandfoundation/ARCs/blob/main/ARCs/arc-0004.md)

`byte` constants are:
```
byte base64 AAAA...
byte b64 AAAA...
byte base64(AAAA...)
byte b64(AAAA...)
byte base32 AAAA...
byte b32 AAAA...
byte base32(AAAA...)
byte b32(AAAA...)
byte 0x0123456789abcdef...
byte "\x01\x02"
byte "string literal"
```

`int` constants may be `0x` prefixed for hex, `0o` or `0` prefixed for
octal, `0b` for binary, or decimal numbers.

`intcblock` may be explicitly assembled. It will conflict with the assembler gathering `int` pseudo-ops into a `intcblock` program prefix, but may be used if code only has explicit `intc` references. `intcblock` should be followed by space separated int constants all on one line.

`bytecblock` may be explicitly assembled. It will conflict with the assembler if there are any `byte` pseudo-ops but may be used if only explicit `bytec` references are used. `bytecblock` should be followed with byte constants all on one line, either 'encoding value' pairs (`b64 AAA...`) or 0x prefix or function-style values (`base64(...)`) or string literal values.

## Labels and Branches

A label is defined by any string not some other opcode or keyword and ending in ':'. A label can be an argument (without the trailing ':') to a branching instruction.

Example:
```
int 1
bnz safe
err
safe:
pop
```

# Encoding and Versioning

A compiled program starts with a varuint declaring the version of the compiled code. Any addition, removal, or change of opcode behavior increments the version. For the most part opcode behavior should not change, addition will be infrequent (not likely more often than every three months and less often as the language matures), and removal should be very rare.

For version 1, subsequent bytes after the varuint are program opcode bytes. Future versions could put other metadata following the version identifier.

It is important to prevent newly-introduced transaction types and
fields from breaking assumptions made by programs written before they
existed. If one of the transactions in a group will execute a program
whose version predates a transaction type or field that can violate
expectations, that transaction type or field must not be used anywhere
in the transaction group.

Concretely, the above requirement is translated as follows: A v1
program included in a transaction group that includes a
ApplicationCall transaction or a non-zero RekeyTo field will fail
regardless of the program itself.

This requirement is enforced as follows:

* For every transaction, compute the earliest version that supports
  all the fields and values in this transaction.
  
* Compute the largest version number across all the transactions in a group (of size 1 or more), call it `maxVerNo`. If any transaction in this group has a program with a version smaller than `maxVerNo`, then that program will fail.

In addition, applications must be v4 or greater to be called in an inner transaction.

## Varuint

A '[proto-buf style variable length unsigned int](https://developers.google.com/protocol-buffers/docs/encoding#varint)' is encoded with 7 data bits per byte and the high bit is 1 if there is a following byte and 0 for the last byte. The lowest order 7 bits are in the first byte, followed by successively higher groups of 7 bits.

# What AVM Programs Cannot Do

Design and implementation limitations to be aware of with various versions.

* Stateless programs cannot lookup balances of Algos or other
  assets. (Standard transaction accounting will apply after the Smart
  Signature has authorized a transaction. A transaction could still be
  invalid by other accounting rules just as a standard signed
  transaction could be invalid. e.g. I can't give away money I don't
  have.)
* Programs cannot access information in previous blocks. Programs
  cannot access information in other transactions in the current
  block, unless they are a part of the same atomic transaction group.
* Smart Signatures cannot know exactly what round the current transaction
  will commit in (but it is somewhere in FirstValid through
  LastValid).
* Programs cannot know exactly what time its transaction is committed.
* Programs cannot loop prior to v4. In v3 and prior, the branch
  instructions `bnz` "branch if not zero", `bz` "branch if zero" and
  `b` "branch" can only branch forward.
* Until v4, the AVM had no notion of subroutines (and therefore no
  recursion). As of v4, use `callsub` and `retsub`.
* Programs cannot make indirect jumps. `b`, `bz`, `bnz`, and `callsub`
  jump to an immediately specified address, and `retsub` jumps to the
  address currently on the top of the call stack, which is manipulated
  only by previous calls to `callsub` and `retsub`.
